Published forOXFORD INTERNATIONALAQA EXAMINATIONSInternational A LevelPHYSICSAS andA LEVELJim BreithauptOXFORDPublished forOXFORD INTERNATIONALAQA EXAMINATIONSInternational A LevelPHYSICSAS andA LEVELOXFORDJim BreithauptUNIVERSITY PRESSOXFORDAcknowledgementsThe publishers would like to thank the following forUNIVERSITY PRESSpermissions to use their photographs:Great Clarendon Street,Oxford,OX2 6DP,United KingdomCover:JUAN CARLOS CASADO (starryearth.com)/SCIENCEOxford University Press is a department of the University ofPHOTO LIBRARYOxford.It furthers the University's objective of excellence inp3:Rafe Swan/Cultura/Science Photo Library;p4:Shutterstock;research,scholarship,and education by publishing worldwide.p10:Gina Randall/U.S.Air Force;p11 p12:Martyn F.Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press inChillmaid/Science Photo Library:p39-p68:Shutterstock;the UK and in certain other countriesp70:Trl Ltd./Science Photo Library:p79l:Stephen Dalton©Jim Breithaupt2016Science Photo;p87:Shutterstock;p115:Drs A.Yazdani D.J.Hornbaker/Science Photo Library:p120:Shutterstock;p121:The moral rights of the authors have been assertedNational Institute on Aging/Science Photo Library:p123:First published in 2016Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory/Science Photo Library:p127:Science Photo Library:p129:Shutterstock;p130:All rights reserved.No part of this publication may beScience Photo Library:p137:Martyn F.Chillmaid/Sciencereproduced,stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted,inPhoto Library:p143t:Ria Novosti/Science Photo Library:any form or by any means,without the prior permission inp143b:Fertnig/iStockphoto;p152-p154r:Shutterstock;writing of Oxford University Press,or as expressly permittedp187t:Library of Congress/Science Photo Library:p187b:by law,by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriateAdrian Bicker/Science Photo Library;p190:Shutterstock:reprographics rights organization.Enquiries concerningp193:Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library:reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sentp195:Berenice Abbott/Science Photo Library;p196 p199:to the Rights Department,Oxford University Press,at theShutterstock;p209:Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library;address above.p219:Sciencephotos/Alamy;p220t:Giphotostock/SciencePhoto Library:p220m:Dept.Of Physics,Imperial CollegeYou must not circulate this work in any other form and youScience Photo Library:p220b:Physics Dept Imperial College/must impose this same condition on any acquirerScience Photo Library:p225-p240:Shutterstock:;p248:HankBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication DataMorgan/Science Photo Library:p273&p280:Shutterstock:Data availablep299:Science Museum/Science Society Picture Library:p300 p310:NASA:p311:George Clerk/iStockphoto;978-0-19-837603-3p313:Viktar/iStockphoto;p322:Shutterstock;p328:Corbis:10987654321p359:Shutterstock;p361:Goronwy Tudor Jones,UniversityOf Birmingham/Science Photo Library:p362:AndrewPaper used in the production of this book is a natural,Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library;p372:Wynnter/recyclable product made from wood grown in sustainableiStockphoto;p375:Shutterstock;p391:Stephen Harrisonforests.The manufacturing process conforms to theAlamy:p394:Pascal Goetgheluck/Science Photo Library:environmental regulations of the country of origin.p429:EFDA-Jet/Science Photo Library:p433:Digital Globe/Printed in United KingdomScience Photo Library:p453:jbcn Alamy Stock Photo:p455:3Dsculptor Shutterstock;p434:Paul Shambroom/SciencePhoto Library:p467:Igor Grochev /Shutterstock:p461p469:Shutterstock.Although we have made every effort to trace and contact allcopyright holders before publication this has not been possiblein all cases.If notified,the publisher will rectify any errors oromissions at the earliest opportunity.Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford ingood faith and for information only.Oxford disclaims anyresponsibility for the materials contained in any third partywebsite referenced in this work.